UMGC PSYC301 2021 April Complete Course Latest

PSYC301 Biological Base of Behaviour

Week 1 Discussion

Discussion topic: Two questions arise from this week’s reading: How did behavior evolve? How are functions assigned to parts of the brain?

The evolution of behavior makes it hard to tie cause to effect. When the same behavior appears not only throughout a species but in some form in related species, we look for an evolutionary path to its development. The discovery of a genetic influence on the behavior and evidence that it is adaptive tends to confirm our suspicions. Yet genes do not directly cause behavior. As you read, think about how genes are connected to behavior.

Consider, too, that neurons acquire their function in behavior through their connections with other neurons. Behavior does not emerge from all neurons equally, but is often localized to specific brain regions. What does it mean to say that a behavior is “localized” or “hard-wired”?

Discussion 1 – How Behavior Reflects Evolution and the Brain

Step 1: Read https://psmag.com/social-justice/the-social-life-of-genes-64616 and https://developingchild.harvard.edu/science/deep-dives/gene-environment-interaction/ 

Step 2: Address the following questions in discussion in one paragraph for each of the question items:

Questions

1. Much of our behavior is typical of the species yet individually different, even unique. Choose a specific form of one behavior, such as blinking, eating, or speaking, that probably evolved biologically but varies in different people. Suggest an explanation for its constancy in the species and its variability among individuals.

NOTE: You'll have an easier time with tiny behaviors: a startle reflex, urination, or breathing. Feel free to take on larger traits like problem-solving and mate selection if you wish.

2. When we say that behavior is inherited, we mean that the behavior is influenced by our genes. How do our genes and the environment interact to guide behavior?

3. Post responses of 75 to 100 words each to two of your fellow class members.

 

PSYC301 Biological Base of Behaviour

Week 2 Discussion

Discussion 2 – Brain Localization and Mind Limits

Step 1: Watch Green, “Meet Your Master: Getting to Know Your Brain”

Step 2: Listen to the podcast at https://curiosity.com/topics/the-limits-of-the-human-body-may-be-more-mental-than-physical-curiosity/  or follow the transcript at https://gretta.com/curiosity  The podcast lasts 45 minutes but there is nothing to memorize. Note: You may ignore everything but the podcast or its transcription at those websites. If Gretta.com is down and its transcript unavailable, you may substitute the interview at https://www.theverge.com/2018/2/18/17003304/alex-hutchinson-endure-fitness-science-health-exercise-running-body-limits   for the video and transcript at the "Curiosity" and "Gretta" websites if you need a printed reference. Or feel free to use the podcast at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XHexNzaXY-4 for a newer (but longer) podcast on the same issue. The transcript is available by clicking on the 3-dot ellipsis below the video.

Step 3: Read this discussion of the evidence mentioned in the podcast in Step 2: https://www.outsideonline.com/2112241/fatigue-all-your-head

Step 4: Address the following questions in discussion in one paragraph for each of the three question items:

Questions

1. Choose two parts of the brain described in Step 1 for this week and discuss how they might be related in function. How might a neuron in one structure depend for its function on what is happening in a neuron in the other structure?

2. Draw a conclusion about the way we localize functions in the brain: Was Broca justified in labeling a speech center in the brain with so few patients? How many brains are necessary to draw a conclusion? What does localization mean, after all? There is no strictly right or wrong answer to this question, but only thoughtful responses.

3. Describe an example in your own experience of misattributing a body function to a mental function or misattributing a mental function to a body function. For example, did doing chores as a kid really make you tired?

4. Post responses of 75 to 100 words each to two of your fellow class members.

 

PSYC301 Biological Base of Behaviour

Week 3 Discussion

Discussion 3 – How the Brain Constructs the Perceptual World

Step 1: Watch the following video: https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/that-dress-isnt-blue-or-gold-because-color-doesnt-exist

Step 2: Review the published evidence:

https://www.maxplanckflorida.org/fitzpatricklab/homunculus/science/  (If this website is down, pPlease use the following URL as a substitute. You do not need to map your own homunculus. https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/blog/eureka-lab/do-it-yourself-map-touch   )

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/did-humans-evolve-to-see-things-as-they-really-are/

https://www.npr.org/transcripts/654730916

All 3 audio clips are the same sentences: “It was a funny thing. The children were going to the park.”  Recorded with, without, then with sine-wave garbling.

https://www.newscientist.com/article/2131864-our-brains-prefer-invented-visual-information-to-the-real-thing/

Step 3: Address the following questions in discussion in one paragraph for each of the three question items:

Questions

1. Look closely at the rainbow (visual spectrum) in the picture located at the top of the Week 3 module -  Week 3: How the Brain Constructs the Perceptual World,  and ask yourself if any colors are missing. When you find a missing color, present a description or an illustration that shows the color. If you can explain why the color is absent from the spectrum, do so in a paragraph.

2.  Judging from the resources in Steps 1 and 2, can we believe our senses? Where do individual differences seem to arise in the way we perceive the world?

3. Describe the combined roles of vision and the vestibular apparatus in a coordinated act in sports, such as a second baseman's double play, a pole vault, or a turnaround jump shot. What are the differences and similarities in the roles of the two senses?

3. Post responses of 75 to 100 words each to two of your fellow class members.

 

PSYC301 Biological Base of Behaviour

Week 4 Discussion

Hip Hop by werner22brigitte comprises public domain materials.

Discussion section: Behavior is movement more than anything else. The output of the brain is seen chiefly in the secretions of the glands and the contraction of the muscles. We will consider the effects of hormonal secretions in the next topic. This week, consider our movements, which reflect the influences of the state of the body and the pressures of the environment.

Discussion 4 – How the Brain Coordinates Our Movements

Step 1: Address the following questions in discussion in one paragraph for each of the three question items:

Questions

1. Do you think that conscious (voluntary) movements must be organized differently from unconscious (involuntary) movements? What does the evidence tell you?

2. Can you point to any body movements that do not involve reflexes--or some reflexes that do not involve bodily movement?

3. Post responses of 75 to 100 words each to two of your fellow class members.

 

PSYC301 Biological Base of Behaviour

Week 5 Discussion

Emotion by pixel2013 comprises public domain material.

Discussion topic: This week you will try to come to a conclusion as to whether emotions evolved as a limited set of universal functions or are constructed actively as part of our decision-making.

Discussion 5 -- Why Do We Need Emotions?

Step 1: Address the following questions in discussion in one paragraph for each of the three question items:

Questions

1. What are the components (biological, cognitive, behavioral) of a specific emotion like love or fear?

2. Describe two emotions that could easily be confused by the person feeling them. Why are some emotions confused and not others?

3. What are the advantages of an emotion like love or fear? Cockroaches may lack emotions yet they manage to reproduce and escape threats pretty well.

4. Post responses of 75 to 100 words each to two of your fellow class members.

 

PSYC301 Biological Base of Behaviour

Week 5 Discussion

Discussion topic: This week you will try to come to a conclusion as to whether emotions evolved as a limited set of universal functions or are constructed actively as part of our decision-making.

Why Do We Need Emotions?

Step 1: Address the following questions in discussion in one paragraph for each of the three question items:

Questions

1. What are the components (biological, cognitive, behavioral) of a specific emotion like love or fear?

2. Describe two emotions that could easily be confused by the person feeling them. Why are some emotions confused and not others?

3. What are the advantages of an emotion like love or fear? Cockroaches may lack emotions yet they manage to reproduce and escape threats pretty well.

4. Post responses of 75 to 100 words each to two of your fellow class members.

 

PSYC301 Biological Base of Behaviour

Week 6 Discussion

Discussion section: We will open up the question of whether memory is a faithful record and show how our patchwork memories serve us better than a mental museum.

How We Construct and Lose Our Memories

Step 1: Address the following questions in discussion in one paragraph for each of the three question items:

Questions

1. How memories formed at the following levels?

Molecular: What is long-term potentiation (LTP)?

Cellular: How is the hippocampus important for memory?

System: How widely are memories distributed in the brain?

2.  How would you distinguish amnesia from normal forgetting? When would you call an absent-minded person amnesic?

3. What’s better: A memory that records objectively and accurately, or a memory that can be updated to support newer levels of understanding?

4. Post responses of 75 to 100 words each to two of your fellow class members.

PSYC301 Biological Base of Behaviour

Week 7 Discussion

Discussion section: Brain trauma and psychological trauma can have devastating effects. Because trauma is not usually delivered by a surgeon but by a catastrophe, the effects can be hard to categorize. Because concussions and other brain traumas are common, however, they deserve an attempt to figure them out.

Step 1: Watch the following video:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=343ORgL3kIc    11 min., Crash Course Trauma & Addiction

Step 2: Read at least the abstract of this article: http://www.psych.utoronto.ca/users/hasherlab/PDF/2013%20Kapur%20et%20al%20positive%20clinical%20neuroscience.pdf

Step 3: Read all of this article: https://www.outsideonline.com/1907661/some-reassembly-required

Step 4: Address the following questions in one paragraph for each of the three question items:

Questions

1. How does acute stress differ from chronic stress?

2. It’s clear that people differ in their exposure to stressors. How do they differ in resilience as well?

3. Post responses of 75 to 100 words each to two of your fellow class members.

 

PSYC301 Biological Base of Behaviour

Week 8 Discussion

Discussion topic: As hard as it is to define the boundaries between what we call physical and what we call mental, assigning disorders to either domain is even harder. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders avoids the problem by classifying disorders according to their symptoms and not their causes. This is analogous to grouping appendicitis, a stomach ulcer, and intestinal bloating together as Sore Tummy Syndrome.

In sickness behavior, an illness of the body becomes an illness of the mind. An inflammation of the brain becomes schizophrenia or depression. Mental and physical stress both contribute to mental and physical disorders. Can you decide what causes what?

Step 1: Address the following questions in discussion in one paragraph for each of the three question items:

Questions

1. Are we wrong in identifying the mind exclusively with what the brain does? Is “self” more than the brain?

2. How might psychological disorders have evolved? Why have they not become extinct?

3. Post responses of 75 to 100 words each to two of your fellow class members.

 

 

 

PSYC301 Biological Base of Behaviour

Project

Instructions

The class project for this course is a written report, that addresses the biological study of a specific behavioral or mental phenomenon (normal or pathological) covered in the readings and videos. Please select a behavioral or mental phenomenon such as language or schizophrenia and then select a biological strategy for investigating it, such as hormonal or genetic mechanisms, neurotransmitters, drug treatments, or localization of brain processes by imaging. The project will be worth a maximum of 100 points.

Written paper. As an example, the theme of your report might be imaging approaches to the study of schizophrenia. Your paper should summarize fundamental issues, questions, and controversies and provide a general overview of the topic using the biological line of investigation you chose. It should also elaborate on your understanding of the brain processes that are revealed through imaging research in schizophrenia. To accomplish this, you will have to use recent research articles (published within the last five years) to illustrate relevant points. You may use any of a number of electronic databases to find research articles that deal with your topic, including the library and the Internet. The one requirement for the research articles that you select is that two of them must have appeared in a peer-reviewed scientific journal. You may wish to consult with the library staff or your faculty member to confirm whether a particular journal is peer-reviewed.

Newspaper or magazine articles should not be used as your major reference, but they are sometimes useful when they lead you to the appropriate research article. You should avoid simply repeating the articles in summary form, but rather use them within the text of your paper to illustrate important points. You are welcome to discuss your choice of topic with your faculty member to make sure you are on the right track.

Your paper should be 1,600 words, or about 6 to 8 pages, in length (use the word count as a guide to length and stay within 200 words of the target to avoid penalties).  It must be typed, double-spaced, with one-inch margins, and fully referenced in APA format.  Please check the course schedule in this syllabus for the due date. The penalty for a late project is ten percent of the score on the project.

You may wish to submit a draft of your complete or near complete paper to the Effective Writing Center (EWC) for review and comment, prior to the due date of the paper. This should be submitted well in advance of the due date, in order for the EWC to respond and for you to make the necessary corrections. Once you receive feedback from the EWC, you can copy and paste it into a Word Document, then post it in your assignment folder with your project paper by the due date, for your instructor to view as necessary. The EWC can help address questions regarding format, structure, writing style, and appropriateness of references.

 

PSYC301 Biological Base of Behaviour

Quiz 1

Question 1 Select the correct sequence for processing of information in the primary visual pathway.

retina - > thalamus -> primary visual cortex

 thalamus -> retina -> striate cortex -> primary visual cortex

 thalamus -> frontal cortex -> amygdala -> extrastriate cortex

 retina -> primary visual cortex -> thalamus -> inferior temporal cortex

Question 2How is the basilar membrane important for hearing?

Question 3If Broca’s patient Tan lost his speech after a stroke and Phineas Gage became rude after his brain damage, is it correct to conclude that we all have a speech center and a politeness center in the brain? Why or why not?

Question 4A patient has great difficulty in maintaining his posture, walking, and coordinating his movements. His brain injuries probably involve the

cerebellum.

 hippocampus.

 hypothalamus.

 reticular activating system.

Question 5What kinds of evidence would you want to show that a particular behavior developed through biological evolution? Or to put it another way, why would it be incorrect to say that wearing shoes is the result of biological evolution? 

Question 6At rest, neurons have a resting membrane potential of approximately -70mV, this means that

It will take approximately 70mV of stimulation to get the neuron to fire.

 The charge inside the cell is approximately 70mV more negative than the charge outside the cell.

 K+ will always move down its concentration gradient.

 The charge inside the cell is approximately 70mV more positive than the charge outside the cell.

Question 7A key event for the release of neurotransmitter from the presynaptic membrane is the

hyperpolarization of the axon membrane.

 arrival of an action potential at the axon terminal.

 influx of potassium ions into the axon terminal.

 activation of the sodium-potassium pumps.

Question 8What is myelin and why is it important for the conduction of the action potential?

Question 9Our vestibular system uses a fluid called ____________ to detect head movement in three planes.

 cerebrospinal fluid

 otolith

 endolymph

 vitreous humor

 

 

 

 

PSYC301 Biological Base of Behaviour

Quiz 2

Question 1 Ten-year-old Vito tells his friend, “When you notice that your knees knock, your hands sweat, and your stomach is in knots, then you really get emotional.” This statement best illustrates the

Cannon-Bard theory.

 James-Lange theory.

 spillover effect.

 two-factor theory.

Question 2 Do the James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories of emotion try to explain the effects of acute stress or chronic stress? Explain your answer briefly.

Question 3 Our most rapid and automatic fear responses may result from the routing of sensory input through the thalamus directly to the

hippocampus.

hypothalamus.

cortex.

amygdala.

Question 4 Memory consolidation is the process in which explicit memories initially registered in the ________ are transferred for long-term storage in other regions of the brain.

basal ganglia

 hippocampus

 hypothalamus

 thalamus

Question 5 A loss of an encoded memory as a result of a gradual fading of the physical memory trace best illustrates

repression.

 interference.

 storage decay.

 the misinformation effect.

Question 6 The ___________ is located posterior and inferior to the cerebrum and serves to smooth and coordinate our movements through error detection and correction.

motor cortex

 muscle spindle fiber

 basal ganglia

 cerebellum

Question 7 How does long-term potentiation support learning?

Question 8 An example of procedural memory is

knowing what the word elephant means.

 playing the piano.

 remembering your breakfast this morning.

 remembering a phone number for a few seconds before you dial.

Question 9 What are three differences between REM sleep and non-REM sleep?

Question 10 The neurotransmitter responsible for translating action potentials into mechanical actions at muscles is

norepinephrine.

 dopamine.

 acetylcholine.

 serotonin.

Question 11 Damage to a small area of the primary motor cortex causes

difficulty moving a particular body part.

 trembling in a certain body part.

 uncontrolled body spasms.

 trouble feeling pain in your muscles.

 

PSYC301 Biological Base of Behaviour

Final Exam

Question 1 Some parts of the brain that belong to the limbic system are the

a)            amygdala and hippocampus

b)            basal ganglia and cingulate cortex.

c)            thalamus  and hypothalamus.

d)            pons, cerebellum, and medulla oblongata.

Question 2 According to the James-Lange theory of emotion, we feel fear when

a)            w e h a v e l e a rn e d t h a t f e a r re s p o n s e s l e a d t o re w a r d s .

b)            we see others showing fear.

c)            we feel the fight-or-flight response is underway.

d)            we judge that a threat is present.

Question 3 Which is NOT an important principle of the study devoted to the biological bases of behavior (behavioral neuroscience, psychobiology, physiological psychology):

a)            the nervous system controls and responds to body functions and directs behavior

 b)           nervous system structure and function are determined by both genes and environment throughout life

c)            every behavior can be explained solely by reference to the brain

d)            the brain is the foundation of the mind, making learning, memory, language, and other processes possible

Question 4 Which of the following is NOT true about amnesia? Question 4 options:

a)            It may involve an inability to form new memories.

b)            It is always caused by brain damage.

c)            It may involve an inability to retrieve old memories.

d)            Amnesic patients typically recover within a few days.

Question 5 Stages of sleep are easily distinguished by Question 5 options:

a)            changes in respiration

b)            the quality and quantity of dreams

c)            changes in the electrical activity of the brain

d)            changes in consciousness

 Question 6 The sodium-potassium pump helps to maintain

a)            the exocytosis of neurotransmitters

b)            the resting membrane potential

c)            new growth in axons

d)            circulation of cerebrospinal fluid in the brainstem

Question 7 Study of the function of the living human brain is difficult for all the following reasons, EXCEPT

a)            it is unethical to induce brain damage in humans for the purpose of research

b)            brain damage is rarely the same from case to case

c)            a damaged brain gives us little information about brain structure and function in the living brain

d)            it is difficult to obtain the brain of a person who has suffered brain damage

Question 8 The knee-jerk or myotatic reflex occurs when Question 8 options:

a)            muscle spindles are stretched

 b)           Golgi tendon organs are stretched

c)            muscles contract

d)            the spinal cord is injured

Question 9 Psychological disorders are often explained by referring to heredity, mental processing and social relationships together. This type of explanation follows the

Question 9 options:

a)            Cannon-Bard model

b)            James-Lange model

c)            dandelion-orchid model

d)            biopsychosocial model

Question 10 The increasing permanence of a memory is referred to as Question 10 options:

a)            tolerance

b)            consolidation

c)            encoding

 d)           law of mass action

Question 11 Hair cells transduce (choose most complete correct answer)

a)            sound intensity and frequency

b)            sound intensity and frequency and head movement

c)            head movement and acceleration

d)            vibration, compass direction, and bodily twist

Question 12 Oxytocin is associated with which of the following emotions?

a)            fear and anxiety

b)            love and trust

c)            disgust

d)            decorticate rage

Question 13 The semicircular canals contain hair cells that sense Question 13 options:

 a)           dizziness

b)            where the gaze is directed

c)            head movement and acceleration

d)            static head position

Question 14 Retinotopic, tonotopic, and somatotopic representation are all forms of

a)            mapping receptors onto separate regions of sensory cortex

b)            organization of cerebral cortical neurons into columns

c)            sensory plasticity

d)            development repeating sequences of events also found in evolution

Question 15 The persistence across many generations of a psychological disorder that is heavily influenced by heredity suggests that the behavior disorder may once have been

a)            adaptive

b)            learned

c)            considered normal

 d)           epigenetic

Question 16 The basal ganglia include Question 16 options:

a)            amygdala, hippocampus, and cingulate gyrus

b)            frontal, temporal, and occipital lobes

c)            caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus

d)            midbrain, pons, and medulla

Question 17 An inability to form new permanent (long-term) memories is called

a)            anterograde amnesia

b)            retrograde amnesia

c)            transient global amnesia

d)            tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

Question 18 Stress hormones of the adrenal glands are

 a)           corticotropin-releasing hormone and ACTH

b)            acetylcholine and serotonin

c)            androgens and estrogens

d)            epinephrine/norepinephrine and cortisol

Question 19 Which of the following patterns would you diagnose as Broca's aphasia?

a)            Impaired speech production in patients who are aware of the difficulty

b)            Impaired speech comprehension in patients who are unaware of the difficulty

c)            Inability to remember the names of things

d)            Ability to speak more than one language

Question 20 Which of the following is most likely to be the major neuronal process underlying consolidation?

a)            lateral inhibition

b)            receptor adaptation

 c)           long-term potentiation

d)            glycolysis

Question 21 Based on the study of patient H.M., it has been concluded that Question 21 options:

a)            short-term memories are stored within the hippocampus

b)            the hippocampus is required for retrieval of long-term memories

c)            the hippocampus converts short-term memories into long-term memories

d)            long-term memories are stored within the hippocampus

Question 22 Which of the following is true of learning? Question 22 options:

a)            Learning and memory are synonymous.

b)            Long-term memories are related to the electrical activity of the brain

c)            Learning involves the modification of the nervous system by experience.

d)            Learning is possible in the absence of memory.

Question 23 Verbal behavior is said to be a lateralized function of the left hemisphere in that

 a)           most language problems are noted after damage to the right rather than to the left hemisphere

b)            most language problems are noted after damage to the left rather than to the right hemisphere

c)            right-handed persons are more likely to have their language center located within the right hemisphere

d)            electrical stimulation of the left hemisphere has a smaller effect on language than does similar stimulation of the right hemisphere

Question 24 When your friend tells you she has just won a new car, you are likely to experience

 

a)            misattribution of emotion to a bodily complaint

b)            the fight-or-flight response

c)            chronic inflammation

d)            the spillover effect

Question 25 A failure of memory consolidation occurs most commonly in

a)   stressful circumstances

b) anterograde amnesia

c)            retrograde amnesia

 d)           the hypothalamus

Question 26 Damage to the basal ganglia would be expected to produce difficulties in

a)            speech perception

b)            emotional experience

c)            understanding social rules

d)            motor movements

Question 27 The idea that our emotions result from bodily changes such as adrenaline secretion is called the

a)            Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

b)            James-Lange theory of emotion

c)            Klüver-Bucy theory of emotion

d)            saltatory conduction of thought

Question 28 If one neuron is intensely stimulated by another, the transmission of action potentials between them may be facilitated. This is called

a)            synaptic facilitation

b)            long-term potentiation

c)            heterosynaptic facilitation

d)            long-term depression

Question 29 Memories are stored

a)            in the hippocampus

b)            in the basal ganglia

c)            in the cerebellum

d)            at numerous locations in the brain

Question 30 Saying that schizophrenia has a genetic basis means that

a)         there is a gene that is responsible for schizophrenia

b)            schizophrenic parents will have schizophrenic children

 c)           a twin of a schizophrenic person has a greater than average chance of developing schizophrenia

d)            some races are more schizophrenic than others

Question 31 Post-concussion syndrome may include Question 31 options:

a)            anterograde amnesia

b)            the fight-or-flight response

c)            improved consolidation

d)            repetitive or prolonged behavior called perseveration

Question 32 Severe stress

a)            impairs learning but helps retrieval

b)            helps learning but impairs retrieval

c)            impairs both learning and retrieval

d)            helps both learning and retrieval

Question 33  Stress that disturbs the momentary resting state of the body is usually

a)            bad

b)            good

c)            sometimes bad and sometimes good

d)            a side effect of chronic inflammation

Question 34 Memory loss resulting from stress most often affects Question 34 options:

a)            episodic memory

b)            semantic memory

c)            procedural memory

d)            memories stored in the cerebellum

Question 35 The patient known as H.M. demonstrated which important aspects of amnesia?

a)            Plasticity in recovering from significant brain damage; importance of past experience in forming

 memories; reliance of emotional regulation on frontal cortex

b)            Importance of youth in surviving major brain damage; dependence of brain plasticity on the Y chromosome.

c)            Involvement of the hippocampus in memory; ability of one kind of learning, such as mirror drawing, to survive amnesia affecting other kinds of learning.

d)            Confirmation of the amygdala as a "fear center" and of prefrontal cortex as a inhibitor of the amygdala.

Question 36 The role of neural reorganization in recovery of function after brain damage can be described as

a)            controversial, but it is assumed to play some role

b)            recently well-understood

c)            well-understood only in lower mammals

d)            well-established

Question 37 In the cochlea, the basilar membrane discriminates among different sound frequencies by

a)            shortening its length for low frequencies and lengthening for high frequencies

b)            inhibiting hair cells.

 c)           showing more resonance in the left ear than in the right ear.

d)            vibrating more to high sound frequencies at its base than at its apex.

Question 38 The bodily change most likely to contribute to depression is

a)            dehydration

b)            resilience

c)            chronic inflammation

d)            acute inflammation

Question 39 The parts of the brain that participate in the stress response belong to the

a)            hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis

b)            limbic system

c)            reptilian brain

d)            pyramidal motor system

Question 40 Chronic stress attacks synapses in the brain with the help of

a)            lateral inhibition

b)            epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol

c)            sleep deprivation

d)            cytokines and microglia